Redigar essays

Redigar essays Johannes Vermeer was born in Delft in 1632 and lived there his entire life until he died in 1675. Ever since he was a little boy, Vermeer had been involved in art, serving as a master art dealer after his father died in 1652. He soon started painting under the training of Leonaert Bramer through certain family connections. Vermeer soon became a master in the Saint Lukes Guild in 1653. Genre scenes, landscaped, and allegories became Vermeers most known pieces of art. Little is know about relationships or influences Vermeer had with other artists, though Gerard ter Borch II co-signed a document in 1653. Milkmaid was one of Vermeers pieces that sold in 1719. The composition of the picture is so simple to the untrained eye. Given the woman pouring milk, an uneducated mind would accept this as a dreary woman at work that lived centuries ago. The Milkmaid in some ways resembles the style of Vermeers predecessors, yet the ambiguous feeling of the painting lives up to his own maturity. The detail expressed through the picture is the occurrence of light upon the milkmaid. The brushstrokes of color are so deliberately contrived they may well stray an anxious historian comfortable with his style. Vermeer painted two different copies of this scene almost completely identical. There were a couple of small changes that may be overlooked, yet there are some objects that appear completely exact. Color blotches appear on the womans face alone with different texture rivets in her skirt. One painting may be used with the other to give emphasis to the womans face and stomach, giving hint to lead us to believe that this woman is a mother. Many artists use symbols in their paintings to get a point across and that takes no exception here. If you look closely, you may notice a little design on the tile between the womans skirt and the foot warmer. This design depicts a cupid preparing to shoot his bow. In the...

Dual Degree vs Double Major Which Is Right For You

Dual Degree vs Double Major Which Is Right For You SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Got a passion for more than one field of study? Then you might be interested in studying two fields simultaneously with either a double major or dual degree. What is the main difference between a double major and a dual degree? And how can you figure out which option will be a better fit for you? In this dual degree vs double major guide, we go over the fundamental difference between the two academic paths, define each option in detail, and take a look at the most important similarities and differences between the two. We also offer you some tips to help you determine whether a double major or dual degree will work better for you based on your preferences and goals. The Basic Difference Between Double Major and Dual Degree The key difference between a double major and a dual degree lies in what you receive when you graduate from college. With a double major, you're earning just one bachelor’s degree (i.e., one diploma) with specializations in two fields. However, with a dual degree, you’re earning two separate degrees/diplomas (which could be two bachelor’s degrees, a bachelor’s and a master’s, etc.) in two distinct fields. Typically, a double major means you’ll be studying two fields that are based in the same school and that’ll earn you the same type of degree, such as a Bachelor of Arts (BA), a Bachelor of Science (BS), or a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA). By contrast, a dual degree usually means you’ll be studying two unique fields that are based in two different schools and that’ll earn you two different types of degrees (e.g., a BS and a BFA). In my case, I double majored in English and East Asian Languages and Cultures (EALC) at USC. This means I earned just one college degree: a Bachelor of Arts with concentrations in English and EALC. Because classes for the English and EALC majors were both housed in the College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences (and both majors led to a BA), I was able to study the two fields under the same degree. That said, if I’d wanted to study a much more different combination of fields, such as English and architecture (which are housed in two different schools at USC), I'd needed to have studied the fields as two separate degrees, which would have earned me a BA in English and a Bachelor of Architecture. Now that you understand this basic difference, let’s take a look at the main qualities that define a dual degree and a double major. With a dual degree, you'll get two diplomas when you graduate from college. What Is a Dual Degree? A dual degree (also called a double degree) is when a student studies two different fields at the same time in order to earn two separate degrees. Depending on the university, this could be a wide combination of degrees, such as two types of bachelor’s degrees, a bachelor’s and a master's, or two master’s/professional degrees. Each degree corresponds to one of the fields in which you’re specializing. For instance, at the University of Michigan, undergraduate students can pursue a dual degree by earning a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) at the Ross School of Business and a BA, BS, BFA, etc., at another school within UM. Universities that offer dual degree programs often require students to apply and get accepted to the two schools at which the fields are housed. Because a dual degree requires students to simultaneously complete the requirements for two different degrees, it typically takes more time (more than four years or four years plus summer classes) than a regular undergraduate program does. As with any degree, you must complete all basic requirements (including general education courses and major courses) for both degrees in order to earn them. Columbia’s BA/MPA dual degree program, for example, takes a total of five years to complete- but by the end of this, you’ll be rewarded with both a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree. This extra time required for a dual degree naturally means that students who are pursuing one will likely have to pay more in tuition, housing, etc. Nevertheless, you’ll save money (and time!) doing a dual degree than if you had pursued the two degrees separately or at different times. A double major allows you to study two fields and get just one degree. What Is a Double Major? You’ve probably met or heard of college students doing a double major. With a double major, you earn a single degree with concentrations in two fields. These fields are typically housed in the same school or college within a university and earn you the same type of degree (e.g., a BA, a BFA, a BS, etc.). If you want to pursue two majors in two highly different fields or at two different schools in your university, you’ll likely have to instead apply for a dual degree program. At some universities, you can apply the same courses to both of your majors, which can save you time and money. But this policy varies. At Stanford, you can't have any overlapping classes for your two majors. Meanwhile, at UC Berkeley, you may have up to two upper-division credits count toward both of your majors. Many students do not declare a double major until at least halfway through their college career. (I myself didn’t declare my second major until the end of my sophomore year.) However, you can declare a double major earlier if you know what you want to study, or possibly later, so long as you’ll have enough time to get all the credits you need by the time you intend to graduate. Furthermore, double majors can typically be completed within the regular four-year span (as most undergraduate degrees are). This means that double majors won’t usually have to spend any more money or time on their degree than a single major would. Finally, it’s worth noting that some students are able to triple major- meaning they get to study three fields at the same time and still earn just one degree! Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. Dual Degree vs Double Major: 3 Key Similarities So far, we’ve given you the basic difference between a dual degree and a double major as well as in-depth definitions of both academic paths. Now, we'll take a look at some of the key similarities between the two. #1: You Get to Study Two Fields at Once Both a dual degree and a double major allow students to study more than one academic field at the same time. As a result, you’ll get the advantage of being able to broaden your horizons and expand your knowledge in different subject areas. This can lead to more effective analytical skills, too, which can be applied to careers and other professional endeavors. According to one study, double majors tend to be more dynamic, creative thinkers than single majors, indicating that there are many intellectual advantages to studying two fields at once. Getting a double major or dual degree can also prevent you from feeling limited or constricted to a single academic discipline. For example, if you love learning Spanish but aren’t sure whether a language major alone will help you get a job after college, you could combine it- via either a dual degree or double major- with another field that’s more job-oriented and that offers you the opportunity to learn a different skill set. More fields of study = more career options! #2: Studying Two Fields Can Diversify Your Career Prospects Perhaps the biggest benefit of studying two fields, either as a double major or dual degree, is that you’re acquiring two individual sets of skills and knowledge. This intellectual diversity can have a positive effect on your future career prospects. Basically, your experience with studying two academic disciplines will allow you to explore a bigger array of possible careers. For example, say you did a dual degree program in which you earned a BFA in Piano Performance and a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA). With these two fields under your belt, you could enter a career related to music or business (or a career combining both!). Since you have many of the fundamental skills required (or preferred) for a job in either of these two fields, we could say your dual degree has, in fact, diversified your career possibilities. The same can be said for a double major. Say you double majored in chemistry and English. With these majors, you’ll learn plenty of useful skills, from critical thinking to observation and analysis, that you can apply to several occupations. For example, you could be a professional writer or work with a company that sells scientific equipment. You could even combine your majors in a more specialized career; for instance, you could become an editor of a science journal. Overall, both a dual degree and double major allow you to not just learn about two fields but also gain a set of broader skills that can be applied to far more careers than had you simply studied one field. #3: You Might Be Able to Apply a Class Toward Both Majors/Degrees Though this varies a lot depending on the university, with some double majors and dual degree programs, you can apply some of the classes you take for one major/degree to your other major/degree. However, note that most universities that allow this overlap between credits have a limit on how many credits/classes you can apply to both majors/degrees. For example, dual degree students in the College of Engineering at the University of Michigan may request to have a class for one degree "double-count" toward their other degree by submitting a Dual Degree Course Election Form. At Northwestern, double majors can double-count a limited number of courses toward both their majors if they’re majoring in an interdisciplinary field, such as Asian Studies or Neuroscience. Double Major vs Dual Degree: 2 Major Differences We know that a dual degree gets you two separate degrees, whereas a double major gets you just one degree with two concentrations. But what are some other major differences between the two? Unfortunately, knowledge isn't the only thing to rise when you opt for a dual degree. #1: Dual Degrees Take Longer and Cost More Money Since you’re earning two degrees, each with its own unique academic requirements, a dual degree program requires more coursework than a double major does. This means you’ll generally be in school longer- often five or more years depending on the program and types of degrees you’re getting. By contrast, with a double major, you can usually finish college within the regular four-year time frame (though some people might take longer, especially if they didn’t declare their second major until very late into their college career). At Indiana University of Pennsylvania, for example, you must earn 120 credits for a double major and 150 credits for a dual degree. Due to this extra time spent in school, a dual degree typically costs more money overall than a double major does You’ll need to pay more for tuition since you're taking more credits in total; you’ll also need to pay more for things like housing, textbooks, and meals since you’ll be staying in school longer. #2: Dual Degrees Usually Require Admission to Two Schools Because a dual degree means you’ll be pursuing two degrees from two different schools, you’ll usually need to apply to (and get accepted to) both schools. By when you must apply to each school depends on the university. At Boston University, you must complete one full semester before you can apply to the dual degree program, and you can’t apply any later than the first semester of your junior year. At Columbia, applicants to the Law School may apply for a dual degree either when they initially apply for admission to the Law School (in other words, before they start college) or when they’re already enrolled at the Law School. Double majors are different, though. Since most students who double major study fields housed in the same school, they won’t need to apply for admission to a separate school. In general, the process for declaring a double major is a lot simpler than that for entering a dual degree program. For a double major, all you typically need to do is consult your advisor to figure out how many credits you need, which classes you’ll take, and whether you’ll have enough time in your schedule to pursue both majors without issue. Double Major vs Double Degree: Which One Should You Do? If you’re reading this article, you’re likely considering studying more than one field in college. But which is better for you: a double major or a dual degree? Below is a quiz you can use to help you figure out which plan might be a better fit for you. For each statement, put a check for either "Agree" or "Disagree." At the end, tally up your number of agrees and disagrees to find out whether a double major or dual degree is better suited for you. Statement Agree Disagree I hope to graduate within four years. The two fields I’m interested in studying are (at least somewhat) related to each other. Money is or might be a major concern for me. I dislike long, complicated application processes. I get easily stressed with having to balance lots of schoolwork. I’m unsure what I want to study in college. Mostly Agrees - A Double Major Should Work Well for You! If you got more agrees than disagrees, then a double major will likely work better for you than a dual degree will. You’d prefer to avoid spending any more money or time than you need to in order to get your college degree. You also want to study two fields that are at least slightly relevant to each other and whose majors don’t require a long application process or a lot more credits. Mostly Disagrees - A Dual Degree Is the Challenge You’re Seeking! If you got more disagrees than agrees, a dual degree sounds like the perfect intellectual challenge for you. You have a clear idea of the two (likely very different) fields you want to study and don’t mind spending more time and money getting your degrees. You’re also OK with having to balance a heavier-than-normal workload. Equal Number of Agrees and Disagrees - You Could Do Either! If you got an equal number of agrees and disagrees, either a double major or a dual degree could work well for you. You’re probably not a huge fan of spending a lot more time and money than you need to, but you’re also very interested in studying the two fields you really want to learn about, regardless of the challenges they might pose. Dual Degree vs Double Major: Key Takeaways Both a double major and a dual degree involve the study of two academic fields. However, there's a big difference between the two academic paths: a double major means you’ll get one degree with two concentrations, whereas a dual degree means you’ll get two separate degrees (i.e., two diplomas), one for each area of specialization. Typically, double majors involve the study of two related fields of study whose majors are housed in the same school or college at a university. This means you’ll graduate with one type of degree, such as a BA or BS, with two concentrations. Students usually have until at least the beginning of their junior year to declare a double major. Most double majors are able to graduate within the typical four-year time frame and therefore won’t need to spend more money on credits/tuition than a single major would. By contrast, a dual degree generally means you’ll be studying two highly different fields whose majors belong to two different schools. As a result, you’ll usually have to apply to both schools separately (and of course get accepted to both!). Dual degrees also require more credit hours than single degrees and double majors, since you need to complete the requirements for two separate degrees. The best way to figure out whether a double major or a dual degree is right for you is to take our quiz above. To reiterate, here are the main questions to ask yourself before you make your choice: What academic fields do you want to study in college (and how sure are you of your choices)? How much coursework are you willing to handle at one time? Are you OK with having to spend more time and money on your degree(s)? Being able to answer these questions should give you a clear idea as to which academic path- a double major or a dual degree- is ultimately the best one for you to take! What’s Next? What about if you want to become a teacher- do you need a dual degree, an education major, or just certification? Learn more about whether or not you need a teaching degree here. We also have complete guides for how to become a teacher and whether or not you should get an early childhood education degree. Still got questions about dual degrees or double majors? Then feel free to take a look at our in-depth guides to what a dual degree is and what a double major is to learn more about what to expect if you're pursuing one. What's the process for double majoring? Get the rundown in our guide on how to double major in college! If you're thinking about adding a second major but aren't sure if you can handle the workload, you should also check out our guide to low-key college majors. Struggling to figure out what you want to study in college? Have no fear- our guide will help you choose the best major for you, one step at a time. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Practice Management and Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Practice Management and Leadership - Essay Example As the essay stresses post-modern thinking has become somewhat lost in it’s the celebration of differences rather than focusing on the searching for commonality. The post modern society is leading to the development of post modern organisational structures which are being used as contrasts to bureaucratic forms of organisation, which were unable to cope with the demands of the post modern condition. From the report it is clear that the post modern organization does not and cannot exist. For example, from a post modern perspective, a contemporary form of organization would put little emphasis on planning and control and would create an essentially chaotic and reactive environment. But this extreme example cannot be allowed to rule in today’s businesses, since most organizations today spend a large amount of their time and money on rationally calculating things like which market to move into, which firm to swallow up, etc. It would be valid to conclude that at this present time we can witness a mixture of modern and post modern forms in most organizations. This way of being can develop into a more open, and pliable organization. But then of course this so called openness can cause many uncertainties. Thus the role of design management has come to embody the ways in which organizations are redesigning themselves in order to free the workers from bureaucratic shackles and bec ome the involved, fluid and connected ‘post modern’ organization.

Use and Abuse of Power in Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Use and Abuse of Power in Management - Essay Example It is necessary for both the mangers as well as the non managers to study organization because organizations are vital mechanisms and helps in achieving the goals in modern society. Therefore, the aim of the essay is important to be able to distinguish between the use of power management and its abuses. Thus in order to achieve the required aim, the essay would highlight the theories in literature review and provide an example in order to relate the theories with practical examples. Thus the essay starts off with an introduction on the use and abuse of power in the management, followed by a literature review, quoting the theories necessary for the topic. The next part of the essay would put light on practical examples of organizations with relation to use and abuse of power and finally the essay ends with a conclusion and recommendation for the managers stating how a manger should distinguish between use and abuse of power in management and work accordingly providing an effective result for the organization. It has been founded that there arise a thin level of difference between the use and abuse of power and the managers are familiar with the danger of uncoupling power with politics from an ethical point of view. Managers are concerned about how can the negative aspect of power be managed. Therefore the answer to this query lies in generating an understanding of the relationship between power, the ability to influence and the political process (Butcher & Clarke , 2008, p.19). Power is defined as the ability to marshal resources in order to get something done. The use of power and authority in organizations are crucial, but a manger needs to plans, manage, organize coordinate and control the various activities of an organization. And this makes one of the reasons as to why managers want to get promoted to a higher position so that they can utilize the power. Thus an organization can be seen as political system where the use and abuse of power plays a significant role in the functioning of the organization (Dzimbiri, 2009, p.33). Theoretical Background Introduction Leaders implement the task and roles with the help of power that they possess. It has been suggested that a leader should always stay away from blaming, coercive and bullying style of leadership. A manger can support innovations and the ongoing activities of the organization are many different ways. In a hierarchical organization, the locus of power is fixed and clear but in a fla tter structure power is more fluid and is constantly being negotiated. According to Adair, the authority in the organization is usually derived from position, knowledge and personality. Kotler suggested that the first and foremost thing which is important in leadership is to understand the types of power and the methods used to influence the people, to utilize different types of power as per the need and seek out the appropriate leadership role, to create more power and utilize them and finally to temper the use of power with maturity and self control and recognizing the impact of use and abuse of power on others (Morrison, 1998, p.214). It has been found out by the authorities that effective use of power is the most important element of management. Some of the leaders have proved themselves to be highly influential leaders and powerful. These leaders were powerful because of the fact that they were able to build a strong

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts Essay Example for Free

Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts Essay Of mice and men was written in a period when mentally disabled people were treated like outcasts. They were treated like that simply because they were different. Mental people were thought to be almost like a different species. Black people were considered outcasts because they had different skin-colour to white people. Also women were treated like property that belonged to men. The novel was written during the Great Depression, where jobs and employment were scarce. The USA was quite a poor country back then. Lennie is considered an outcast because he is mentally disabled. Mentally disabled peopled in that time were treated badly. They were locked up and separated from the rest of society. This is known as segregation. They also use to be sterilised. This means that they werent allowed to have babies or reproduce. Those are all very horrible. However, lennie was not treated like any other mental people. This is because he has George to look after him, and many other mentally disabled people didnt have anybody to care for them or to look after them. But Lennie had that someone, and it was George, so that is whats different about Lennie. In the ranch, however, lennie was considered an outcast. We know this because lennie says to crooks, Everbody went slim, George and everbody. George says I gotta stay here. This shows that Lennie is not allowed to go into town like the rest. Hes not considered good enough do anything with the lads. Lennie is not allowed to play games, such as horseshoe, with the others. From outside came the clang of horseshoe only Lennie was in the barn. This shows that while the others played their games lennie was made to stay inside the barn. He is like an outsider or a refugee. Crooks is considered an outcast simply because he is black. In those days, black people were treated very badly. They were treated differently from white people. Black people were often never called by their first names. Crooks is considered an outcast on the ranch because hes black and isnt referred to his real name, its either crooks or nigger. Crooks also has his pride he is a proud and aloof man. This means that crooks is not allowed inside the bunk house because hes black. Hes allowed to play sports outside the bunk house, but not inside it, which is why he had a separate room. I aint wanted in the bunk house cause Im black. This shows the racial issue of how black men did not mix with whites. Crooks is being segregated in this way. That is also another reason why crooks is an outcast. Curleys wife is presented as an outcast. This is because women in those times were treated as a piece of property by the men. They may have also been treated as a sex object by their husbands; there to cook, clean and have babies. In the ranch Curleys wife is considered an outcast because shes a woman. Also she is related to the boss. She is not allowed to play horseshoe or go into town or even talk to anyone. We know that when she was in the barn with lennie, I get lonely you can talk to people, but I cant talk to nobody but Curly. This shows us that everyone else can talk with whom they like, but she can only talk to her husband. In conclusion, 1930s America is presented as a racist country who thinks black should be separated in terms of class. It is presented as a country that thinks mentally disabled people should be separated from the rest of society. It was also a sexist country who treated women very badly. A very uncivilized country.

Application Software :: essays research papers fc

Application Software   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Computer systems contain both hard and software. Hardware is any tangible item in a computer system, like the system unit, keyboard, or printer. Software, or a computer program, is the set of instruction that direct the computer to perform a task. Software falls into one of two categories: system software and application software. System software controls the operation of the computer hardware; whereas, application software enables a user to perform tasks. Three major types of application software on the market today for personal computers are word processors, electronic spreadsheets, and database management systems (Little and Benson 10-42). A word processing program allows a user to efficiently and economically create professional looking documents such as memoranda, letters, reports, and resumes. With a word processor, one can easily revise a document. To improve the accuracy of one's writing, word processors can check the spelling and the grammar in a document. They also provide a thesaurus to enable a user to add variety and precision to his or her writing. Many word processing programs also provide desktop publishing features to create brochures, advertisements, and newsletters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An electronic spreadsheet enables a user to organize data in a fashion similar to a paper spreadsheet. The difference is the user does not have to perform calculations manually; electronic spreadsheets can be instructed to perform any computation desired. The contents of an electronic spreadsheet can be easily modified by the user. Once the data is modified, all calculations in the spreadsheet are recomputed automatically. Many electronic spreadsheet packages also enable a user to graph the data in his or her spreadsheet (Wakefield 98-110).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A database management system (DBMS) is a software program that allows a user to efficiently store a large amount of data in a centralized location. Data is one of the most valuable resources to any organization. For this reason, user desire data be organized and readily accessible in a variety of formats. With aDBMS, a user can then easily store data, retrieve data, modify data, analyze data, and create a variety of reports from the data(Aldrin 25-37). Many organizations today have all three of these types of application

Frozen Food Business in Bangladesh

Abstract This paper is a review of Bangladeshi Frozen Food Business. Frozen Foods in Bangladesh encompass from fishes to ready-to-cook foods. However, fishes and shrimps are exported and generate foreign exchanges for Bangladesh, whereas, the semi-processed foods are imported and produced locally. Indeed, it is a potential business where rural people can be benefited by investing little amount of money, and producing and meeting the emergence demand in the market.This paper additionally concerns on the constraints of business such as lack of properly trained people, stiff competition for the home made processed foods. Therefore, this paper identifies new scope for the growth and development of this segment. Since this segment has got little concerns, we hope that this paper would meet the requirements for the development of the frozen food business and aid the base for further research on this segment. Introduction Though Bangladesh is an agricultural based country, its aquaculture i s developing and contributing to the export of the country.In fact, the frozen food is one of largest contributor to the foreign exchange earnings and occupies fourth position among the export items in terms of total export earnings (Bureau of Statistics, 2004). In Bangladesh, frozen food includes shrimp and fish, and shrimp contributes to the majority of earnings from the frozen food. However, in recent years, the frozen food business has become diversified, and traditional thinking about it has also changed. In Bangladesh, it has been developing based on the fishery along with processed meat and chicken.Indeed, in Bangladesh, new trend in the frozen food business is emerging in silence, which is semi or fully prepared food in retail outlets. But unfortunately, there is not much research work on this segment of frozen food business done, which is developing and growing a new innovative concept in the vacuum space of frozen food business. In fact, this development and its policy imp lications have received little attention in the literature on export-led industrialization in developing countries (Athukorala & Sen, 1996).Therefore, for our research work, we are focusing on processed frozen food found in the retail outlets, and hope that this work would help for the further development of this segment in frozen food business in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, fishes, shrimps and prawns are exported as frozen food to various parts of the world. The frozen seafood sector is booming by exporting. Earnings from this area are increasing and have the potential to increase more. The value of these exports in 1996-97 was US$342. 26 millions (Bureau of Statistics, 1997).However, the shrimp belt of Bangladesh is always the subject of debates on law, order, safety and production process and food quality and environmental issues. As such, in 1997, the European Union (EU) imposed a ban on Bangladesh’s frozen food exports after an EU inspection team report condemned shrimp p rocessing plants in Khulna and Chittagong for their failure to comply with EU quality control regulations (http://www. ifpri. org). However, the agenda of concern is with the semi or fully prepared frozen food that is an emerging market in Bangladesh.These food items have been commercialized recently under company labels like Bombay Sweets, Rich and Aftab. In addition, there are other concerns that supply with this type of frozen food and they are called homemade items. The range of frozen food can contain prepared or semi-prepared food like parathas, pizza, franks, samucha, chops, shami kabab, puri, nuggets, and many more exquisite delicacies. The increasing demand for these types of products has given rise to domestic production of these food items, whereas, a couple of years back everything was imported (Personal Interview, Nandon).Origin of the Study Basically frozen food can be a processed or semi-processed food that is kept in freezer to preserve it for later use. However a be tter explanation may include, Frozen food is food preserved by the process of freezing. Freezing food is a common method of food preservation which slows both food decay and, by turning water to ice, makes it unavailable for bacterial growth and slows down most chemical reactions (http://www. wikipedia. com). Moreover, the condition required to keep frozen food is diifferent. Foods may be preserved for several months by freezing.Long-term freezing requires a constant temperature of -18  °C (0 degrees Fahrenheit) or less. Some freezers cannot achieve such a low temperature. The time food can be kept in the freezer is reduced considerably if the temperature in a freezer fluctuates. Fluctuations could occur by a small gap in the freezer door or adding a large amount of unfrozen food. A special kind of freezer is required to constantly cool the food and in this manner the texture of the food remains the same (http://www. wikipedia. com). Food preserved by freezing or preserved by the process of freezing, is termed as frozen food.Preserving food by freezing is a widespread method of preservation as it slows both food decays. It happens by turning water to ice, which makes it unavailable for bacterial augmentation and slows down most chemical reactions. It is not possible to grow or produce all kinds of food throughout the year or every where around the world. The need for storage and keeping food fresh for a long period of time arises to make them available in all season and everywhere. It is the blessing of science that now it is possible to keep food frozen for our betterment. Today, frozen food products are making our frantic life-styles seem a bit easier better.In fact, successfully evolving and adapting to the needs of consumers, frozen foods have been around a lot longer than we think (http://www. reference. com). History of Commercialization of Frozen Food Business The frozen food industry that we see today can be traced back to several years back to the p ast. Obviously, the existence of frozen food has always been on earth; in climates that were cold enough for the food to freeze. The Chinese were the first to harness the power of freezing foods beyond the winter months. Later, the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Indians also discovered that (http://www. fraweb. org). Even though ice-refrigerated railroad cars allowed perishable food products to be shipped as early as the 1860s, major innovations in refrigeration engineering after World War II gave birth to the frozen food industry. Scientists also developed techniques to control the ripening of fruits, vegetables, and other perishables that further extended shelf-life. Advances in transportation came particularly fast – steamships in the mid-1800s, railroads and refrigerated trucks 19th century – and combined with falling oil prices to dramatically reduce the cost of shipping food.It now costs 70 percent less to ship cargo by sea, and 50 percent less to ship by air, tha n it did 20 years ago. Furthermore, invention of frozen orange juice concentration and artificial organic food items also cause the consumers located in different geographical area to enjoy seasonal fresh foods at any time season (Halweil, 2002). With the course of time, many people developed innovative techniques of food-freezing, including Enoch Piper, William Davis, and Daniel E. Somes. But, Clarence Birdseye (1886 – 1956), an American taxidermist by trade, is credited for his quick freezing method that he invented in 1924 (http://www. oc. gov) and considered the father of the frozen food industry. He invented, developed, and commercialized a method for quick-freezing food products in convenient packages and without altering the original taste (http://www. wikipedia. com). Before the quick-freezing technique came along, foods were frozen at a fairly slow rate, making the foods loose their taste and texture. However, Birdseye theorized that food must be frozen very quickly so that its taste and texture can be maintained. His theory covered the packaging, type of paper used, and related innovations along with the ‘freezing technique'.In fact, this quick-freezing process actually ended up creating 168 patents (http://www. loc. gov). The modern frozen food industry was born over 70 years ago, in 1930, when frozen foods were being traded commercially (http://www. nfraweb. org). Objectives of the Study This study attempts to identify the current condition of frozen food business in Bangladesh, especially the semi-processed food segment of frozen food. Therefore, our agenda focuses on the semi-processed food found in the retail outlet.Therefore, this study will identify the future perspective of the frozen food business, space of growth, employment opportunity and scope of developing frozen food business country wide to develop the market and export for foreign earnings. Significance of the Study As we have seen from the earlier segment, frozen food b usiness has become very important for Bangladesh due to its capability of foreign earnings and employment opportunity in this sector. However, the semi-processed food segment in the frozen food has not got any attention; consequently no proper research work is available.Therefore, we hope our study would help the frozen food sector as it would reveal the future perspective of the frozen food business and develop the ideas on what the entrepreneurs and government should do for the development and expansion of this particular segment the. Methodology To prepare the report, we will go for massive research on the frozen food business throughout the semester. The study is mainly based on secondary data and documentary methods. Documents are an important source of information and such sources of data might be used in various ways for the research work.To attain the study different books, journals have been studied. Different websites and portals have been visited when required. Furthermor e, we took interview of Deputy Manager at Nandan. Lastly, we have concluded the study by providing some recommendations based on our findings. Limitations of the Study Everything is its limitations as it has opportunities to develop. There still exist some limitations in our study. The limitations are we only focused on the secondary source but not able to visit any production facility.There is also time constraint as for any research work it requires more that two to three years; but within three month semester, we had to complete the study on the frozen food business. Literature Review International business is defined as ‘transactions that are devised and carried out across national borders' and has existed since the national borders were formed and has shown growth throughout the history with greater peace and security, economic prosperity through development in transportation and communication, and technological progress, especially advent of Internet, liberalization of t rade policies and reduction in ariffs, and creation of global institutes and agreements (GATT or WTO). During the last 30 years of twentieth century (1970-2000), the volume of international trade in goods and services has expanded from a level of US$200 billion to over US$6. 8 trillion – a 34- fold increase, which is faster than world output. Direct foreign investment (FDI) reached a level of US$4. 7 trillion by 2000. The sales of foreign affiliates of multinational corporations (MNCs) recorded a level twice as high as global exports.The driving force behind the growing/changing international business is the process of globalization, which has been accelerated during the last 2-3 decades (Hussain, 2002). A noteworthy recent development in world trade is the rapid expansion of processed food exports and it is the fastest growing component in food products (Athukorala & Sen, 1996; Australian Food Statistics, 2001). The impetus for export expansion has come from new agro-based m anufacturing activities, in particular various fish preparations and processed foods.While labor-intensive manufactures too have demonstrated impressive growth dynamism in absolute terms, this has been dwarfed by the more dramatic growth record of processed goods. There is evidence that these new product lines have many positive attributes according to which the contribution of manufactures to the objectives of industrialization is normally evaluated (Athukorala & Sen, 1996).These include economy-wide linkages, important learning effects emanating from the mastery of new production technology, higher productivity, international marketing effort and entrepreneurial skills involved in export success (Meller, 1995). Based on the conventional definition, export of manufacturing (Appendix A) share in total exports of world trade merchandise increased to 81 percent in 1994 and closely associated with the rapid expansion of manufacturing exports form developing countries those shares in wo rld manufacturing exports increased to 24 percent in 1994.On the other hand, share of processed food in world non-manufacturing (Appendix A) trade increased to 37 percent in 1994, and this share is sharper for developing countries compared to that of developed countries with increased to 38 percent compared to an increase to 36 percent recorded by developed countries in 1994. However, mong the 37 countries, some countries have performed far better than others in this area such as Bangladesh, Bolivia, Chile, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia and Thailand; and among the low-income countries, Bangladesh is a notable exception, with a growth rate of processed food exports that is more than double that that of any other low income developing country (Athukorala & Sen, 1996). Foreign direct investment has been increasing at a faster rate than direct exports of processed foods over the past decades.Although its impact is currently not quantified, national-level regulation is frequently cited as a potential source of non-tariff barriers to trade for food products. These barriers may be intentionally aimed at favoring domestic production, or merely be the innocent by-products of a country’s attempt to serve its consumers by assuring various food quality attributes. FDI allows food processors to avoid rules intended to disadvantage imported products by setting production within particular markets.It may also allow more precise and rapid adaptation to domestic quality regulations (Hooker & Caswell, 1996). A priori reasoning and some scattered evidence suggest a number of factors, which results in growing share of processed food in the world trade. A widely observed feature of consumer behavior in the global economy has been an increasing `internationalization of food habits’ – the increased importance of processed items in food consumption patterns in developed countries as well as in large sections of the populace in many developing countries.Factors such as international migration, the communications revolution and international tourism have contributed to this phenomenon. This may have provided a significant demand-side impetus to the growth of processed food exports from developing countries. On the supply-side, improvements in food technology, refrigeration facilities and transportation have made processed food items easily tradable across national boundaries (Athukorala & Sen, 1996). Furthermore, strategic choice of FDI or export the processed food in the international market is also influenced by national-level regulation on the ood quality standard. FDI allows food processors, by setting production within a market, to avoid rules intended to disadvantage imported products and to adapt rapidly to domestic quality regulations through greater flexibility, better designed plants, shorter shipping distance, less need for preservatives, packaging or refrigeration, superior understanding of the rules or better appreciation of local d emands for goods with differing attributes to direct food quality benefits to both firms and consumers (Hooker & Caswell, 1996).The emphasis on manufactured exports expansion in developing countries is rooted in the belief that compared to primary commodities, manufactured goods have some intrinsic characteristics, which contribute to superior growth performance. As such employment potential, terms of trade gains, knowledge and technology spill-over are among the most emphasized of these characteristics (Athukorala & Sen, 1996).However, in general, the employment potential of resource-based manufacturing, based on standard trade theory (Heckscher-Ohlin model), is that an abundant supply of labor is not a key determinant of comparative advantage in international production (Findlay, 1985; Roemer, 1979). The Heckscher-Ohlin model (1933) was first conceived by two Swedish economists, Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin at the Stockholm School of Economics. The Heckscher-Ohlin model is a gen eral equilibrium mathematical model of international trade.It builds on David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage by predicting patterns of trade and production based on the factor endowments of a trading region. The model essentially says that countries will export products that utilize their abundant factor(s) of production and import products that utilize the countries' scarce factor(s). However, this generalization in processed food is debatable as there is no clear relationship between income levels and processed food export growth.Furthermore, unlike in the case of further processing of resources such as minerals and timber, final stages of food processing appear to be labor-intensive. Besides, terms of trade gains from export diversification depends on the degree of income and price elasticity of demand for the commodities concerned, and processed food exports are superior to primary products in terms of these criteria. Furthermore, processed food would be even superior to conventional manufactured goods, hich are by their very nature, are highly import-dependent. On the other hand, processed food industries have large domestic resource content and tend to be closely related to activities in the rural sector (Athukorala & Sen, 1996). It is very likely that recent trade agreements and developments will significantly influence national-level regulation of food quality. NAFTA, GATT and WTO are the first attempt to specifically address food quality standards as potential barriers to trade.National-level quality regulation takes on many dimensions or regimes because product quality itself is multidimensional. Trade theory provides a foundation for analyzing the impact of food quality regulation on FDI and trade. In its basic form, economic theory suggests that gains from trade arise when countries specialize in production of those goods to which they are best suited, thereby earning export income that allows for increased consumption.Trade theoryâ€⠄¢s recent focus on analyzing rent seeking and rent shifting associated with national regulation, the benefits to individual sectors of an economy from trade agreements, and the divergence of outcomes between countries with different per capita income levels are also useful. New trade theory, on the other hand, discusses the effects on trade and investment patterns of imperfect competition, economies of scale, and distortions in factor markets.It advances two quite different explanations of Intra-industry Trade – one emphasizes the interaction of product differentiation and economies of scale and second one emphasizes the literal two-way trade of identical products, with price discrimination being the driving force. It is useful for analyzing quality regulation because it focuses on the many factors that affect the welfare impacts of trade policy (Hooker & Caswell, 1996). Barriers to freer trade arising from non-tariff sources have become more prominent as progress has been m ade worldwide on tariff reduction.Parties to recent trade agreements have sought to lower non-tariff barriers or at a minimum to assure that progress toward freer trade is not thwarted by increases in non-tariff barriers. Regulation of product quality can be a major source of non-tariff barriers to trade. If such barriers are to be lowered, trading partners must develop methods of regulatory rapprochement. For processed food products the level of regulatory rapprochement on quality regulation will have significant impacts on patterns of international trade in the next decade (Hooker & Caswell, 1996). Hirschberg et al. 1992) investigated the bilateral trading patterns of 30 countries and found that various market size variables (Appendix B) such as gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and the comparative size of GDP between trading partners shared border and membership in either the European Community or European Free Trade Area proved to be significant determinants of intra-indus try trade. Similarly, the study of Hartman and colleagues (1992) on processed food and beverage industries resulted stressed the positive effect on intra-industry trade of US total trade and economies of scope.The study on processed food of Handy and MacDonald (1989) found that product differentiation cultural ties, and firm size were significant determinants of FDI. Connor (1989) expanded on this evidence to suggest the importance of tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade and domestic and foreign market structure, and stressed effects of the host country's regulatory practices, patent protection and trademark laws as likely factors in determining FDI levels. Ning and Reed (1995) highlighted the importance of factors such as host market size, growth rate, and membership in a trading bloc in explaining FDI patterns.In addition, research by Sheldon and Witzke (1992) provided various quality models to trade in food products and highlighted the key role played in the market by consume rs' ability to verify standards set by another country. National-level quality regulation and within trade bloc rapprochement influences firms’ choice of strategies to increase sales abroad such as export sales, joint ventures, FDI, and licensing although not yet quantified. The demand for food quality will continue to increase as incomes increase. National-level performance expectations will increase in the future.Demand for higher quality products increases as income increases. In addition, National governments are the first in line to respond to this demand with new regulations. The demand and new national regulations are likely to outstrip harmonization efforts on an ongoing basis, leaving national regulations with an enduring influence on patterns of trade in processed food products. Quality regulation has momentum, in both more and less developed countries, making keeping up very difficult for firms and cooperating countries.For firms working under national-level qualit y regulation, a very significant problem is that the regulation is dynamic, changing, and in many cases ratcheting up (Hooker & Caswell, 1996). In addition to the national-level quality regulation, many countries have implemented labeling requirements for foods. Labeling provides processor and retailers’ choice, not necessarily consumer choice. The decision of these intermediaries is central to the outcome of any food labeling policy. Consumers will be part of their labeling decision, because retailers and processors will conduct marketing studies on consumer perception (Carter & Gruere, 2003).However, the food label is an important tool for improving the public understanding of the health benefits of following a nutritious diet. The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has continued to study food labels with its Food Label and Package Survey (FLAPS). Data from the 2000–2001 FLAPS characterize various aspects of the labeling of processed, packaged foods, including nutrition labeling and various types of label claims. The final FLAPS database consists of 1,281 foods. An estimated 98. % of FDA-regulated processed, packaged foods sold annually have nutrition labels, with an additional 1. 7% of products exempt from nutrition labeling requirements. Health claims, structure or function claims, and nutrient content claims were identified on food labels. In addition to the resource this, survey provides to CFSAN in assessing health and nutrition information on the food label, registered dietitians and other health professionals can use FLAPS data to assist consumers in choosing a more nutritious diet to improve their health and well-being (http://www. sciencedirect. com).Food safety and Environmental Requirements in International Market It is useful to distinguish between two kinds of food safety and environmental requirements. Mandatory requirements formulated by national or local governments are here referred to as ‘regulations’, while voluntary requirements formulated by the private sector, NGOs or other organizations are referred to as ‘standards’. The latter category includes those voluntary requirements drawn up by National Standards Organizations and international bodies (United Nations, 2007). Food-safety standards and regulations tend to cover multiple issues.Apart from food safety, they cover issues such as plant and animal health, product quality, environmental protection and social welfare. Government regulations applied to imports of FFV sector largely focus on food safety, labeling and marketing requirements. Private-sector standards tend to focus on food safety, environmental protection and social welfare (Geneva, 2006). A number of factors have contributed too increasingly stringent food safety regulations and standards imposed by governments and the private sector, in particular: †¢ Recent food scares and scandals in developed countries; Demographic developments in developed countries (i. e. ageing of population, which gives rise to be more risk-averse and quality-conscious consumer behavior); †¢ Risk minimization efforts by retailers; and †¢ More sophisticated detection and testing methods. Food safety standards and regulations tend to cover multiple aspects. Apart from food safety, they cover issues such as plant and animal health, product quality, environmental protection and social welfare (United Nations, 2007). Requirements laid down in government regulations are often transmitted to producers and exporters in developing countries through the supply chain.For example, EU legislation tends to hold importers accountable for compliance with its provisions with regard to imported products. The need to take responsibility for the safety of the food they import into the EU market places importers under an obligation to exercise due diligence over supply chains (Geneva, 2006). Possible Implicatio n for Developing Countries Developing countries face considerable constraints in meeting food safety regulations and private-sector requirements due to weak institutions, lack of infrastructure, high compliance costs, lack of information, and other factors.One can even go so far to say that the new mandatory and voluntary requirements act to reinforce other strengths and weaknesses at production unit and supply-chain levels, i. e. in terms of technical or transport infrastructure (Geneva, 2006). Adoption of the HACCP approach to assuring safety Developed countries are increasingly requiring adoption of the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) approach to assuring food safety. In the EU, the use of HACCP has become mandatory for all food categories.The use of HACCP is not mandatory in the case of primary production. However, the use of HACCP is mandatory in packinghouses in the case of semi-processed and processed food, vegetables, and products that are pre-packed in th e exporting country (United Nations, 2007). Economic Environment of Bangladesh During the last few years, Bangladesh made considerable progress in stabilizing and liberalizing its economy. As a result, inflation was much lower than previously, and average annual real GDP growth was above 5%, largely led by exports.Indeed, one of the most striking features of Bangladesh's trade is that textiles and particularly clothing dominate exports. This dramatic change in the composition of exports is the consequence of Bangladesh's increased integration into the multilateral trading system. On the structural policy front, the Government has continued to pursue, inter alia, trade liberalization, financial sector reform, and privatization (www. wto. org). Unfortunately, real annual GDP growth, averaging around 6. 7% during the review period, has not been sufficient to make much of a dent in the poverty that pervades Bangladesh.Given Bangladesh's high incidence of poverty, its dense population, a nd its vulnerability to natural disasters, including periodic flooding and cyclones, food security is a major policy objective of the Government. Trade Policy Framework The Ministry of Commerce (MOC) is responsible for coordinating trade policy matters through its agencies, as well as in consultation with other Ministries and governmental bodies; national committees are formed to address specific issues on trade and industrial development.Private sector representatives, including business groups and academic institutions, are consulted in the policy-making process through their participation in the national committees. A major institutional change involves the upgrading of the Tariff Commission under the purview of the MOC; the Commission is now empowered to conduct anti-dumping and countervailing investigations (http://www. wto. org).Local regulations, standards and good agricultural practices (GAP) can assist developing countries in promoting safe and sustainable production system s and in supplying products for domestic, regional and international markets that meet the quality, safety and environmental standards of those markets (United Nations, 2007). Trade Policy Measures In an effort to encourage investment, the Government offers a wide range of open-ended tax incentives, notably tax holidays and accelerated depreciation.However, the effectiveness of such incentives in attracting investment is doubtful, particularly in the absence of fiscal transparency, which would involve a detailed account of tax revenues forgone and systematic evaluation of the impact of these incentives in relation to forgone taxes. The existence of incentives complicates tax administration and taxpayer compliance, while increasing the scope for tax avoidance and evasion, both of which are reflected in Bangladesh's low overall level of tax collection relative to GDP (http://www. wto. org). Frozen Food Business in BangladeshBangladesh as a third-world country poses poverty, unstructur ed business environment, conservative social values for living as an inherent quality. Since this country has achieved independence, it started to changing slowly and now its changing rapidly to cope with the modern and so called western country. Its business has got new dimensions and the whole country economy has started to play a good role in shaping the worlds future to some extends. The participation of developing countries in world trade is much lower than their participation in world production, as the main producers (China, India and Brazil) have huge domestic markets.Although China is the world’s largest producer, only a relatively small proportion of its production is exported, but its exports are increasing rapidly (United Nations, 2007) GDP growth of broad Industry sector was 9. 56% in FY 2005-06. The performance of the industrial sector was mainly based on the growth in textile and wearing apparel, drugs and pharmaceuticals, fertilizer, petroleum products, glass products, cement, electronics, footwear and food & beverage industries. In addition to that, we can see that the total export earnings registered a 21. 3% increase during 2005-2006 and rose to US$ 10156 million (16. 03% of GDP) from US$ 8655 million (14. 18 of GDP) in 2004-2005. Exports increased chiefly due to higher demand in both developed and developing countries. Garments had the major share (38. 86%), followed by knitwear and hosiery (35. 43%), frozen foods (4. 43%), jute goods (3. 94%) leather (2. 31%), chemical products (2. 52%) and raw jute (1. 03%) (Export Promotion Bureau Bangladesh, 2005-2006). Bangladesh is not well prepared to address the new requirements in international markets.Existing mechanisms for gathering, processing and disseminating information are not working properly and there is hardly any coordination, follow-up and monitoring. Largely, stakeholders are mostly unaware, uninformed and unconcerned. However, some private foundations and NGOs are raising awar eness among producers of quality requirements and providing them with training. They are also exploring non-traditional markets (United Nations, 2007). The processing industries in the Region’s countries (Asia and Pacific region) are essentially agro-based enterprises.There is a huge range of ethnic and traditional food products in each of the countries. The local food industry has evolved around domestically available agricultural raw materials, such as maize or corn, paddy rice, fruits, vegetable, root crops, sugarcane, coconuts, oil palm, spices, beverages (tea, coffee, cocoa) and honey. Modern food processing plants have been introduced in developing Region’s countries, initially centered on processed foods derived from processed meats, wheat and flour products, and dairy products. This has led to an increase in imported raw materials ingredients and packaging, for the roduction of this type of food. In more recent years, however, indigenous companies have set up, often in joint venture with multinational corporations, to process local raw materials such as pineapples, cassava, fruits and vegetables to be packed, labeled and exported under the corporations’ brand names. These operations include food canning, carbonated beverages, frozen food manufacture, and flour and starch production. The companies apply total quality assurance as well as comprehensive research and development procedures to ensure high quality innovative products (Hicks, 2001).Bangladesh has been involved in frozen food business for a long period of time. During the 1970s, our frozen food industry started with rapid expansion of seafood processing and exporting. Now, the industry has come a long way with the frozen foods export is the second largest export sector of the country. Currently, many firms are involved in both import and export of frozen food. Imported goods include various fruits, semi cooked food, full cooked foods, whereas, exported goods encompass froz en shrimp, lobster, crab, and various vegetables.Although the industry involves both exports and imports, it is actually an export-oriented industry with an average annual growth rate of about 28% in the export area. In 1997, the fourth leading export item in Bangladesh was frozen shrimp and fish, with a 7. 3 percent share of the total export market (www. ifpri. org). The industry includes the following sub-sectors: Hatcheries, Sustainable aqua-culture technology, Feed meals plants, and processing unit for value-added products. The frozen food could be categorized into – (1) Fresh Foods, (2) Semi Cooked/Processes Food, and (3) Full Cooked/Processes Foods (http://www. oi. gov. bd). †¢Fresh Foods: Fresh foods are those which has not cooked or baked but has done some modifications where necessary. For example, Sea Food, Beef, Chicken, Fishes, Mutton etc. †¢Semi-Cooked/Processed Foods: Semi Cooked/processed foods are those which has made or shaped or cooked in such a wa y that it can be eaten/use just by a simple cooking process at home. That means, these types of foods are already cooked to some extend and made ready to use after a short cook/bake. For example, Samucha, Singara, Noodles, Porota, etc. Full-Cooked/Processed Foods: Full Cooked/processes foods are those which has made or shaped or cooked in such a way that it can be eaten/use instantly at any time. That means, these types of foods are already cooked/processed to use instantly. For example, Ice-Cream, Juice, etc. The government of Bangladesh and many other national and international organizations have been actively participating for the quality control of the industry. Bangladesh Frozen Foods Exporters Association (BFFEA), a company with limited liability, is the main organization that is involved with this industry and established in 1984.Its main job is to promote and protect the interest of Frozen Food processors, Packers and Exporters in Bangladesh. It also involves in establishing and Promoting, contacts with foreign buyers, business association and the Chamber of Commerce and Industries for developing export marketing and marketing of Frozen Foods (http://www. bangladeshembassy). A Fish and Fish Product Ordinance (Inspection and Quality Control) was created by the Bangladesh government and in 1985 upgraded the inspection laboratory and its personnel (www. ifpri. org).Among the international organizations, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has helped this industry too. It has developed product standards, regulations, and fish inspection schemes. Based on the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach, FAO initiated a 1996 project to give a hand in the preparation of a fish safety and quality control program for the seafood plants in Bangladesh, Intergovernmental Organization for Marketing Information and Technical Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Asia Pacific Region (INFOFISH) also aided the industry several times.It has carried out projects that focused on the export promotion of value-added products and their sustainable development (http://www. ifpri. org). Another international organization, International Technology Development Group (ITDG), promotes food processing to help the rural poor in developing countries to secure sustainable livelihoods. This is part of ITDG’s goal to build the technical skills of poor people in developing countries to improve their lives (O. Yu, 2002).ITDG links up with local organizations to provide training and support to food processors and entrepreneurs emphasizing on flexibility, little capital investment requirement, and operating in the home without the need for sophisticated or expensive equipment. Among the projects of are cereal milling in Peru, snack food production in Bangladesh, and fruit and vegetable drying in the Sudan (Halweil, 2002). ITDG began operating in Bangladesh in the early 1980s, but the ITDG–Bangladesh (ITDG -B) program was not formally established until 1990.ITDG-B provides technical assistance to small producers and local organizations, including training, product research and development, disseminating information, networking and policy advocacy (O. YU, 2002). Food processing could help the rural poor in Bangladesh, especially women, who are among the most disadvantaged. Food processing often requires only a little capital and can use local produce. Many Bangladeshi women, ITDG-B found, were already processing snack foods such as home made samucha, singara etc. Building on their own know-how, women could increase their household income by using local resources to process foodstuff.Food processing can serve several development objectives for households and small business: increased income, greater savings, food security and better nutrition (ITDG, 1999). Agro processing in the broad sense is important to the national economy, having shown a purported 32 per cent annual growth in past years (Bangladesh Economic Review, 1995). While large companies have now entered the snack food market, small producers serve local markets and boost local economies. Preserving food stretches the utility and productivity of farm produce, which is often wasted during peak seasons but scarce during lean seasons.Food processing helps to make food available during lean seasons and helps to stabilize household income (O. Yu, 2002). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has pointed out that the value realized from processing and marketing farm products can surpass primary production (FAO, 1995). The present market for these products is a sellers’ market dominated by a number of firms. Consumers have choices of different quality and price. Producers with appropriate marketing strategies are receiving market acceptance in the domestic market.The market for processed food products is becoming highly sophisticated and consumers are becoming more quality conscious. Major local ma rkets include Dhaka and Chittagong cities. Apart from a growing domestic demand, the government is encouraging the export of processed foods, which is important for this sector. Processed food products in the local market move from processors to the consumers through a chain of wholesalers and retailers. Distribution to the export market is through direct exporting or through trading companies (Hossain & Sheel, 2001). Constrains and Scope for DevelopmentWhile small-scale food processing offers numerous opportunities for improving livelihoods, several constraints that hamper development need to be addressed. A major one is that large companies such as Bombay Mix, Aftab, Rich etc. have begun producing myriad processed foods, including snacks, pickles, jelly and jam. Therefore, there is a stiff competition among the large and small scale producers in the domestic market (Hossain & Sheel, 2001). According to the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB), by April 2000 approximately ten large companies were manufacturing it.Another problem is that small producers have limited know-how in the technology of preparing food products, as mentioned by Azam Ali, coordinator of agro processing programs at ITDG, lack of proper information and expertise seems to be a particular problem in the case of small-scale food processing even though it can be a major source of jobs and additional income. A number of other concerns that inhibit small-scale food processing in Bangladesh (ITDG, 1998) need to be addressed: †¢There is a significant difference between having the ability to produce for home consumption and establishing a small business based on this product.A range of skills (both technical and business) is needed to make the transition from home production to the running of a small-scale enterprise. †¢Linked to this is the ability to locate and target markets. This is a dynamic sector. Rural producers need to learn how to monitor change, develop markets and sell t heir products. Know-how in selling and locating wider markets was a common limitation. †¢Consumer perception is an important issue faced by small-scale processors. There is a common perception that foods produced by small-scale operators are unhygienic and unsafe.This may be somewhat true but is commonly exaggerated. Nonetheless, processors need to be more conscious of hygiene, quality and consistency in food handling, including dangers of adulteration. †¢ Lack of access to raw materials, appropriate equipment and packaging materials are obstacles that small-scale processors frequently face. †¢Access to credit is lacking. Many of the small-scale processors belong to the most marginalized sector of the population and do not have disposable income. To enable them to put their skills into practice, most need access to credit to purchase equipment and raw materials. They also lack access to appropriate and timely information on a range of topics. To compete effectively, s mall-scale food processors need reliable technological information and information on suppliers and prices of materials, equipment and packaging, and marketing information. †¢Recording transactions is a problem because of low literacy. In the 1990s, only 34. 4 per cent of Bangladesh’s population was literate. Literacy among women was 25. 5 per cent. In rural areas it was as low as 13 per cent (BBS, 1999). Most problems were market related: competition with large companies, inconsistent quality, inferior packaging and labeling, marketing and selling, insufficient access to quality raw materials, and lack of confidence among consumers in products of small-scale producers (Azami et al. , 1996; Azmi & Chowdhury, 1996). †¢The value-added tax imposed by the government to the processed food industry and limited promotional activities for the small scale business due to the high cost of advertisement in mass media (Hossain & Sheel, 2001).The changing role of multinational c ompanies and demographic factors, and more globalization of production and market are likely to enforce developing countries like Bangladesh to face increased competition emanating from liberal trade regimes, big MNCs enjoying economies of scale by virtue of their global operation, and lack of access to global market because of no brand name and heavy expense of advertising for local firms (Hussain, 2002). As such in case of Malaysian processed food, they have the technology and the means to locally process food into higher-value products where there is ess competition from other exporting countries such as Bangladesh (http://www. delmys. cec. eu. int). Furthermore, there is a lack of modern infrastructure and equipment for food processing in many developing countries of the Region. Inadequate transportation, poor distribution, inadequate cold storage and freezer capacity, lack of potable water and unreliable power supply are the main shortcomings. There is a shortage of trained, sk illed labor and technical competence in agriculture especially in the traditional food industry sector.This coupled with poor management, leads to inefficiency and poor competitiveness. Labor costs have risen markedly in newly industrialized countries, in the last decade. This results in higher production costs, for labor-intensive operation. Moving the operation to lower labor cost countries, or automation, is the response of modern food companies (Hicks, 2001). To compete with these challenges developing countries should create employment through economic development and promoting technologies that suit the resource endowment.A country like Bangladesh has large populations. Best way to achieve economic development by using the most abundant resource – labor. Developing countries, therefore, have to supplement the R&D effort and modify technologies to their advantage, at least in sectors where most of the population draws its living such as agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, etc. Local business and enterprise development is important for adding value to local resources, creating employment, and improving traditional products for the global market.Taiwan's herbal teas, dried/pickled fruits, India-Pakistan cooking spices, pickles and chutneys, Malaysian ready-to-cook traditional foods and paratha, are interesting innovations in business development. The potential for further development is vast and should be exploited (Hussain, 2002). The local business development also offers huge economic opportunities. Developing nations that emphasize greater food self-reliance can thereby retain precious foreign exchange and avoid the whims of international markets. There is strong evidence that local food often costs less than the quivalent foods bought on the international market or from a supermarket, because transportation costs are lower and there are fewer middlemen. In fact, rebuilding local food systems might offer the first genuine economic opportunity in f arm country in years, a pressing need in view of the huge amounts of money leaking out of rural communities. To the extent that functions associated with food production and distribution are relocated in the community under local ownership, more money will circulate in the local community to generate more jobs and income.This is particularly true if crops are not only grown locally, but also processed locally or served in local restaurants. This sort of alliance can help arrest the positive feedback loop that makes it harder and harder for independent players to survive. Cornwall in England is an icon that link local food to local food business: In Cornwall, the Cornwall County Council’s in-house meal service provider is backing local food suppliers as part of a ? 1 million contract to supply school meals to 32 county primary and secondary schools for fresh meat, frozen food and vegetables (Halweil, 2002).A study on food processing in Bangladesh assessed the market and the po tential of each activity (Chowdhury ; Sarker, 1989). Their study considered snack foods as secondary food processing. Some interesting findings included the following: †¢Many crops were produced throughout the year. Yet because the farms and production were small, the volume of crops that could be processed was smaller than the capacity of even the smallest machines. In 1996, for example, 52. 85 per cent of holdings were small, 0. 05 to 2. 49 acres. Medium-sized farm holdings, 2. 5 to 7. 9 acres, made up 11. 65 per cent, and large holdings were only 1. 67 per cent (BBS, 1999). †¢Most crops, except jute and tea, were produced for the local market, but production was still less than the country’s total demand. Some crops, therefore, were imported. †¢Crop processing could provide employment for women and the rural poor. However, without appropriate equipment, modern capital-intensive production could overrun the industry and displace women and landless workers. Fu rthermore, snack foods were identified as a focus, along with rice and sugar cane products.ITDG-B determined that there was a need to train fieldworkers on how to make snack foods so that they could guide beneficiaries in running food processing businesses. Post-workshop consultations with development organizations emphasized the need to train fieldworkers further in establishing sustainable small-scale food processing businesses, particularly since the business orientation of these organizations and their staff was inadequate. When ITDG-B looked at existing suppliers of technology and training, it found that the existing training courses were oriented towards large-scale operations (O.Yu, 2002). The search for improved quality and reliability of supply tends to create certain governance structures in the private sector along the supply or value chain. Private sector requirements function as value chain governance tools: by specifying, communicating and enforcing compliance with key product and process parameters along the value chain, large buyers and retailers can benefit from control without ownership. Specific requirements on food safety, quality, and environmental or social issues substitute, to some extent, for direct monitoring and ownership by buyers.These requirements transfer the direct costs of monitoring and control from the buyers to the suppliers, who have to bear the costs of certification yet are rarely compensated through higher prices (United Nations, 2007). Food Quality and Standard in Bangladesh Quality of products is ensured through using appropriate raw materials, the right type of equipment and qualified technical personnel. Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institute (BSTI) standards and rules are followed to ensure high quality (Hossain ; Sheel, 2001). The BSTI can play vital role to develop and harmonize food standards for ensuring food quality and security in the country.They also emphasized fixing a standard level to promote food stan dards up to international level and norms to facilitate both the domestic and international trade for boosting the export earnings (http://www. newagebd. com). The BSTI, the national standards body, is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Industries. BSTI performs the task of formulation of national standards of industrial, food and chemical products. Quality control of these products is done according to Bangladesh Standards. Till date BSTI has come up with over 1800 national standards of various products adopting more than 132 International Standards (i. . ISO) and food standards set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (www. thedailystar. net). BSTI certifies the quality of commodities including food items for local consumption, which applies both for export and for import. Currently, 142 products are under compulsory certification marks scheme of BSTI including 54 agricultural and food items (http://www. bsti. gov. bd). The country needs food quality testing faci lities because big international corporate businesses cannot purchase many Bangladeshi food products in the absence of such facilities.One of the major issues that prevent the corporate businesses in the food sector from purchasing from small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Bangladesh is the lack of quality testing facilities (http://www. sdnbd. org). BSTI has made it mandatory to mention six facts regarding the product on the package. This includes the date of production, date of expiry (best before use), net contents or weight, address of the producers or marketing companies, maximum retail price (MRP) and the ingredients (http://www. bsti. gov. bd).BSTI collects random samples from the factories and buys products from the market to test. If they find sub-standard product they do not have the power to take action against the company or the industry. The BSTI Ordinance 1985 has been amended to Act 2003 for consumers' protection against low quality products (http://www. thedailysta r. net). Only the government food testing laboratory at IPH works on food safety and water quality issues. The legal provisions to ensure proper quality control of food are inadequate (world health organization, 2002).The Institute of Public Health (IPH) organizes its activities of quality control of drugs, food and water, production of vaccines, intravenous fluids, antisera and diagnostic reagents, diagnosis of infectious diseases and related research facilities. IPH is formed to assist the government to prevent and control major health hazards caused by contaminated and adulterated food and water. Besides this, it organizes training programs in the field of diagnosis, control and prevention of infectious diseases and food and water safety.It also conducts various research activities in related fields of public health, and to collaborate and co-operate with other national, international organizations and agencies in the promotion of public health (http://www. thedailystar. net). It is therefore essential to enhance awareness and understanding of the possible implications of quality, food safety and environmental requirements for the food sector in Bangladesh, and to carry out an assessment of the compliance costs and the costs and benefits of a proactive adjustment strategy for the sector, including its impact on competitiveness (United Nations, 2007).Recommendations The new product range of frozen food has put forward the market for semi processed or processed food on the run. As people are becoming more work-based, especially women, there is very less time for cooking or preparing Tiffin for children. It is a relive for working mothers and even easy for bachelors to prepare snacks or such items in no time and with less hassle. The frozen food industry has recently begun in Bangladesh, concentrating in major cities like Dhaka and Chittagong and directing towards only superstores.The growing demand from foreigners residing in cities previously to new generati on working moms and other working people has opened a huge opportunity for potential players to join in this appealing industry. Blooming companies are trying to gain awareness for market share at recent times. This benefits customers in terms of superior quality products and better customer service. Thus, the industry has to devise innovative strategies so as to attract and retain more customers. Availability: To gain more customers the companies need to reach out to retail outlets or departmental stores at various corners of the city.Although the product needs to be kept in special freezers, these companies can make it happen. They can provide incentives for retailers or even at potential customer bases can provide with freezers themselves! In order to sustain in this competitive arena, where lot of frozen food imports are pouring in, the industry in Bangladesh needs to be strong in distribution. Export: Companies should spread its boundaries to outside country to gain more revenu e. Things like shrimps and prawns and vegetables are already good frozen exports and are earning good amount of revenue. So, exporting can be good choice to expand.Science and Technology: Distribution and mass customized production may be in the form of acquiring new and advanced store equipments. Such things would increase the pace of goods delivered to customers. Specialized equipment for preserving frozen foods may be acquired. Equipment is being developed that will give both visibility and attractiveness to both frozen food, made possible by new advances in refrigeration which permit visibility but retain low temperature. Modern machinery and technology can help in product design and development, mass production, standardization and quality control, packaging and transport.Promotion: At this point, the frozen food companies should do rigorous promotional activities in order to increase awareness level in probable customers. Different programs may include in-store demonstrations of how easy the food is to prepare, leaflets of the items given to the parents when they wait to take their kids from schools. Leaflets in newspapers and colorful ads in the TV during drama time, 9:00 pm to be shown in various satellite Bangladeshi channels can also be good starting. Another ground to show off is during the international trade fairs.Placing: The cities are big and to create a place there one needs to be different. The people to be targeted are literate working people with white color jobs or students. Therefore to reach this mass a company needs to set up somewhere from where distribution is easy to retailers. Another daring step can be to have a forward linkage or integration. That is to say to have a retail outlet of only company made frozen food. This is company owned and can have a small cafe serving only snacks out of their items. The shop should have people from the company who can answer to any queries the people ay have. Innovation: Constant rendering is req uired to have a strong hold on the market share. Outside of Bangladesh frozen food has ranged from snacks to whole meals. The frozen food companies should develop new products through research and development to match with the ever changing demands. They should always try to make ways to lower cost without hampering quality much so to compete with the imports. Installment of Training Programs Manpower: Manipulative skills are available to the agro-industries in the Region.However, inadequacy of in-depth technical understanding and lack of management skills in the workforce restricts innovation and consistent performance. Therefore, government as well as private sector should develop a sound technological and industrial base, human resources in science, technology administration and management. Institutes for research and development working on the needs of frozen food industries should be established at different levels of development. Infrastructure Development and Favorable Trade Policy: Both institutional and physical, is a component of most national development plans.Establishment of basic infrastructure such as roads, distribution system, power supply, and favorable and supportive policy to have adequate cold storage and freezer system is recognized as essential for the growth of semi-processed food industries. There should be a modern infrastructure and equipment for food processing. Conclusion It is very much clear that Bangladesh potential country to produce frozen food due to its resource endowment – abundant labor force that is suitable for the production of frozen food. The essence of the frozen food business is that it becomes an income source for the local and rural people.There are large organizations associated with this industry, and thus a huge number of employees are employed. That is how this industry is keeping a great deal of contribution in removing unemployment rate and creating more employment opportunity, and, shaping its future . Furthermore, increasing demand both in local and in overseas for the frozen food and little investment requirement make this business more attractive and profitable for small-scale and larger producers. However, massive pressure from imported semi-processed foods is affecting the local small-scale producers such as home made foods.Therefore, frozen food businesses require achieving the quality standard and government should aid small-size business with tax reduction, and facilitate more investment. Here, the private sectors or larger organization can play an important role by facilitating the small producers in the value creation activities. Furthermore, consumer awareness is also a big factor to develop the frozen food industry. Unless and until the consumes are willing to buy locally produced semi-processed food and help the local producers produce quality products, the development of frozen food business country wide might not take place.

Crime against Humanity Essay

In the history of International laws, the foundation of the term â€Å"crime against humanity† can be said to be weak. The concept of the term has also been changing overtime. The term has also been interpreted differently through generations. The confusions and the unresolved principle of the crime were burdened by its features common to war crimes. Aside from that, traditional laws were controlling and perceived as the most applicable law during war times. However, through the development of war, crime against humanity has finally been clarified through the several laws adopted and cases decided during the period of wars. Hence this paper will present crimes against humanity, its origin, elements, and its development. Body The term â€Å"crime against humanity† was created as a result of the mass killings perpetrated against Armenian in 1915. The massive killings in the Ottoman Empire were strongly condemned by the governments of Russia, British, and France by branding the acts as â€Å"crime against Christianity† (Cassese, 67). However, such term was perceived to be discriminatory as it implies excluding Muslim. Eventually, the term â€Å"crime against humanity†, which was suggested by French Minister Delcasse was adopted (Cassese, 67). However, the problem with the term was its implication as it does not specify clearly the meaning humanity, if it refers to human being or to the philosophical concept of humanity. Eventually, an international tribunal was established primarily to hear and try offences in violation of the laws of humanity. Crime against humanity was, however, confused with war crimes under the customary laws because of several similarities. Some of the common features include odious offences constituting as a serious attack on human dignity or â€Å"grave humiliation of one or more human beings† (Cassese, 64). In addition, the events of killing were systematic or sporadic. More importantly, such acts should be punished even if perpetrated in time of peace (Cassese, 64). Furthermore, the victims should be civilians and does not necessarily include military men. Despite the initiative to punish crimes which are perceived as inhumane, many still committed barbaric acts and acts that are strictly prohibited by the traditional international law for political and racial reasons (Cassese, 68). As a result, the 1945 London Agreement, embodying the International Military Tribunal Charter, strengthened the campaign against commission of crimes against humanity (Cassese, 69). Interestingly, elements of the crime against humanity were established. The subjective elements of the crime include murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or forcible transfer or population, imprisonment, torture, sexual violence, persecution, enforced disappearance of person and other inhuman acts of similar character and gravity. Meanwhile, persecution is defined as â€Å"gross or blatant denial, on discriminatory grounds, of a fundamental right, laid down in international customary or treaty law, reaching the same level of gravity as the other prohibited acts† (Cassese, 80). Crime against humanity has also subjective elements which are necessary to be established in order to make the perpetrator liable. The first element is intent which refers to the perpetrator’s intention of committing such act. Second element is the perpetrator’s awareness of the serious consequences of his acts (Cassese, 81). Third element is the agent’s awareness of the relationship between his misconduct and a policy or systematic practice (Cassese, 81). Last element is that the perpetrator must possess a racist or inhuman mind. Underlying these elements is mens rea which is the intent and awareness of the inhuman act and its consequences in a broader context (Cassese, 82). Furthermore, the intent must be criminal, specifically discriminating, harassing or causing the victim or a religious, political or cultural group to suffer serious injury. Notably, an individual acting in his own private capacity may commit crime against humanity. However, it is necessary that the act has been done in unison or is supported by a general state policy (Cassese, 83). The crime can also be perpetrated by state officials in their own private capacity but should be supported by an â€Å"explicit or implicit approval or endorsement by state or governmental authorities† (Cassese, 83). On the other hand, victims are traditionally civilians. Meanwhile, civilian refers to â€Å"persons other than lawful combatants, whether or not such person were civilians fighting alongside enemy military forces† (Cassese, 86). However, through development, military men were also considered as victims of the crimes against humanity. It is also noteworthy 1949 Geneva Convention included unarmed military combatant due to injury or imprisonment under the concept of victim of crimes against humanity (Cassese, 90). Furthermore, the inclusion of the military combatant as victims is applicable even during time of peace. The reason behind it is because military combatant are merely protected by the international laws of warfare but are not protected from the abuses acts from individuals or state authorities. Hence, the protection afforded by the law on crime against humanity should extend to civilians, including military combatants and even in time of peace. Additionally, through the adoption of international treaties protecting human rights and prohibiting crimes that amount to violation of rights. Through the laws adopted by the United Nations, crimes such as torture, apartheid, and genocide, has already been proscribed and made strictly punishable. With regard to element of mens rea, crimes against humanity must be coupled with knowledge of the attack and that it must be part of the widespread attack on civilian population (Cassese, 93). As to the requisite of attack, customary law requires that an attack against civilian should be promoted actively by the state. But under the new law, the requisite has been narrowed down because an attack that has been condoned or tolerated by the state does not automatically become an attack amounting to crimes against humanity. The attack should also involve multiple commissions. Interestingly, the concept of persecution has also been narrowed by the new law. Under the new law, persecution will only fall as a crime against humanity if such would result in the egregiously violate the basic human right, part of widespread or systematic practice, and if discriminatory intent is involved. It can be observed that several drastic changes had been made in the crimes against humanity. Conclusion The historical development of crimes against humanity shows that the term has been established on a weak foundation. Apart from that, the purpose of the term was merely to define the mass killings committed by the Ottoman Turks against Armenia. The statement was originally use for the purpose of defining such crime. But then, changing â€Å"Christianity† into â€Å"Humanity† has complicated several international laws. However, through the weak foundation of the â€Å"crime against humanity† a stronger law to proscribe inhuman, illegal, and lawless actions by private individuals and government authorities has been established. It is also noteworthy that in order for an act to fall as a crime against humanity, several essential elements. It noteworthy that despite customary laws governing the acts of states and people during wartime, the massive killings were not prevented. However, it is also worth noting that the Allies were vigilant enough to act on the abuses committed, especially by Germans. Today, the historical background of crime against humanity and its principle itself has been serving relevant role in the international law. Work cited Cassese, Antonio. International Criminal Law. London: Oxford University Press, 2003.